Grammar (tenses)

Present forms

Present simple

• Refers to routine action and habits
• Refer to repeated events
• Situation is regarded and premantent
• A definite fact
• Introducing thoughts and statements
• Action that are repeated often regulary
• Normally used with stative verbs

Present continouos

• To describe an action which is happing now
• For temporary situations
• For changes and temporary situations
• With always and forever to express irritation
• Normally use with active verbs

Present prefect

• To refer to the present results of an past action or event
• To show that an event or action that started in the past hast continued until the present
• To refer to an event or action that happened at an unspecified time in a period up to now
• To focuse on the number of times an action has repeated
• Is ued to refer to an event or action that started in the past and has continued until the present

Past tenses

Past Simple

• For complete actions in the past
• For finished situation in the past

Past continouous

• To show a cotinued action which was happened when another action took place
• To refer to two actions happening at the same time in the past
• For actions or situation that weren’t finished at a time in the passt
• For interupted actions and situations
• For polite questions, requests

Past perfect

• To show that an action happened ealier than another past action

Past perfect continous

• To refer to an action that happended during a period leading to the another past action
• To show long an action continued until a certain point of time

Used to

• To refer to repeated action or habits in the past that are no longer the case (would)
• To refer to a past state ( no would)
• Used to is not normally used with time expressions specifiting the duration of the action

Future tenses

Will-Future

• To predict the future on personal option
• To express a decision that has just been made
• For factual informations
• To express ot the speakers’s
• institence on doing something

Going to

• For decisions or intentions about the future
• For predictions about the future based on evidence

Adverbs

adverbs and their position

Adverbs are one of the four major word classes, along with nouns, verbs and adjectives. We use adverbs to add more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a clause or a whole sentence and, less commonly, about a noun phrase.

Can you move it carefully? It’s fragile. Quickly! We’re late. She swims really well. Don’t go so fast. You have to turn it clockwise. Come over here. Actually, I don’t know her. I haven’t seen them recently. The bathroom’s upstairs on the left.

We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause

adverbs of frequency

Adverbs give us more information about a Verb. Adverbs of Frequency tell us how often an activity happens. There are many adverbs to choose from.

From

Adverbs of frequency go before the main verb.

subject + adverb + main verb

Adverbs: meanings and functions

Adverbs have many different meanings and functions. They are especially important for indicating the time, manner, place, degree and frequency of something.

Building of an adverb:

adverb: verb + ly

types of questions

have and have got

Have got and have have mean the same. Have got is more informal. We use have (got) here to refer to both verbs:

• I’ve got a terrible pain in my back.
• I have a terrible pain in my back. (more formal)
• They haven’t got a car.
• They don’t have a car. (more formal)

We use have (got) to talk about possession, relationships, characteristics and illnesses. In these contexts, it is not used in the continuous form:

• She’s got two cats and a dog.
• She has two cats and a dog.
• Have you got a drill?
• Do you have a drill? (more formal)

state verbs

Stative verbs describe a state rather than an action. They aren’t usually used in the present continuous form.

Stative verbs often relate to:

• thoughts and opinions: agree, believe, doubt, guess, imagine, know, mean, recognise, remember, suspect, think, understand
• feelings and emotions: dislike, hate, like, love, prefer want, wish
• senses and perceptions: appear, be, feel, hear, look, see, seem, smell, taste
• profession and measurement: belong, have, measure, own, possess, weigh

Verbs which are sometimes stative: have, see, be, taste

Irregular verbs

prepositions in time expressions

c/uc noun

countable nouns can be singular/plural uncountbale can be only singular

quantifiers

articles

Indefinite article

The Indifined article a or an is used with singular, count nouns to refer to a thing or an idea for the first time.

ex.

We have a cat and a dog Theres a supermarket in Adam Street

The Indefinite article is used:

1. with Professions

I’m a teacher She’s an architect

2. with some expressions of quantity

• a pair of
• a little
• a couple of
• a few

3. with some expressions of quantity

• once a week
• three imes a day

4. in exclamations with + a count noun

• What a lovely day!
• What a pity!

Definite article

The Definite article the is used with sigular and plural, count and uncount nouns when both the speaker and the listener know the thing or idea alredy.

ex.

The cat is old, but the dog is just a puppy. I’m going to the supermarket. Do you want anything?

The Indefinite article is used:

1. before seas, rivers, hotels, pups, theatres, museums and newspapers

• the Atlantic
• The Times
• the British Muesum
• the Ritz

2. if there is only one of something

• the sun
• the queen
• the goverment

3. with superlative adjectives

• He’s the richest man in the world
• Jane’s the oldest in the class

No article

There’s no article:

1. before plural and uncount nouns when talking about things in general

I like potatoes Milk is good for you

2. before countries, towns, streets, languages, magazines, meals, airports, stations and mountains

I had lunch with John. I bought Cosmopolitan at Victoria Station.

3. before some places and with some form of transport

She goes to work by bus I was at home yesterday evening

4. in exclamations with What + an uncount noun

What a beautiful weather! What loud music!

Verb patterns and future tenses

Verb patterns

1. Verb + to + infinitive They want to buy a new car.

2. Verb + ing I enjoy tavelling abroad.

3. Verb + ing or + to + infinitve with no change in meaning It started to rain/raining.

4. Verb + preposition + ing We’re thinking of moving house.

like doing and would like to do

1. Like doing and love doing express a general enjoyment I love dancing.

2. Would like to do and would love to do express a preference now or at a specific time. Thanks. I’d love to dance.

Phrasal verbs (literal and idiomatic)

Compound forms of verb and particle are called phrasal verbs in English. Here you get an overview.

An example:

• to look (schauen, hinsehen)
• to look up (nachschlagen)
• to look forward (sich freuen auf)
• to look for (suchen)
• to look after (sorgen für)
• to look ahead (vorausschauen, an die Zukunft denken)
• to look at (ansehen)

What…like/ How is …?

We use How is …? to ask about someone’s general health or about the condition or state of something, or how people experience something:

A: How’s your mother these days? (How is her general health?)

B: Oh, she’s fine, thanks.

talking about an old house

A: How are the walls in the kitchen? (What is the condition/state of the walls?)

B: Well, they need redecorating really.

A: How’s your new car?

B: Wonderful. It’s so much easier to drive than the old one.

What is … like?

We use What is … like? to ask for a description of someone or something (e.g. their appearance, their character, their behaviour):

A: What’s her new house like?

B: It’s a modern one, quite big, with a nice garden.

A: What’s your new teacher like?

B: He’s nice. He’s very good-looking! But he’s quite strict.)

Comparative adjectives

We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons:

This car is certainly better, but it’s much more expensive.
I’m feeling happier now.
We need a bigger garden.

We use than when we want to compare one thing with another:

She is two years older than me.
New York is much bigger than Boston.
He is a better player than Ronaldo.
France is a bigger country than Britain.

When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and:

The balloon got bigger and bigger.
Everything is getting more and more expensive.
Grandfather is looking older and older.

We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another:

The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is. 
(= When you drive faster, it is more dangerous.)

The higher they climbed, the colder it got. 
(= When they climbed higher, it got colder.)

Superlative adjectives

We use the with superlative adjectives:

It was the happiest day of my life.
Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
That’s the best film I have seen this year.
I have three sisters: Jan is the oldest and Angela is the youngest.

Modal verbs

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb in English that express various degrees of possibility, necessity, obligation, permission, and ability. The main modal verbs in English are: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.

Modal verbs have several important characteristics:

1. They do not have an infinitive or participle form.
2. They are followed by the base form of the verb (i.e., the infinitive without “to”) to form a verb phrase.
3. They have no -s in the third person singular present tense.
4. They are not used with the auxiliary verb “do” to form questions or negatives.

The following are the most common uses of modal verbs in English:

1. Ability: can, could Modal verbs can be used to express ability or possibility. For example: “I can speak Spanish” means that I have the ability to speak Spanish.

2. Permission: may, can Modal verbs can be used to express permission. For example: “You may leave early” means that you have permission to leave early.

3. Obligation: must, have to, should Modal verbs can be used to express obligation or necessity. For example: “You must finish your homework” means that it is necessary for you to finish your homework.

4. Advice: should, ought to Modal verbs can be used to give advice. For example: “You should exercise regularly” means that it is a good idea to exercise regularly.

5. Probability: may, might, could Modal verbs can be used to express probability or likelihood. For example: “It might rain tomorrow” means that there is a possibility of rain tomorrow.

6. Deduction: must, can’t Modal verbs can be used to make deductions or conclusions. For example: “She must be tired” means that it is likely that she is tired.

7. Future: will, shall, would Modal verbs can be used to express future time. For example: “I will see you tomorrow” means that I will see you in the future.

Overall, modal verbs are a versatile and important aspect of English grammar, allowing speakers to convey a range of meanings and nuances in their speech and writing.

Reporting

When we report what someone said (direct speech), we often use reported speech:

Direct speech: ‘I disagree with the general opinion’ Reported speech: ‘The Chairman said, he disagreed with the general opinion’

We often change the verb tense by moving it into the past when we use reported speech. This table shows so some typical changes:

Pronouns and adverbs of time

These may change in reported speech:

I saw you yesterday => He said he'd seen her the day before

Say and tell

When we report using tell an object is required:

Peter said that he would be late Peter told his boss that he would be late

Other reporting verbs: argued, called, apologised, agreed, concluded

Reporting questions

Yes/ No questions: Is Jan arriving today => He asked if Jan was arriving today. Open Questions: Why isn't Jan arriving today? => He asked why Jan wasn't arriving today.

Writing a Report: Bitwarden’s Website

Introduction:
As the digital world continues to expand, the need for security is essential. Passwords are the primary line of defense for our online accounts. With the advent of technology, the use of password managers has become prevalent. Bitwarden is one such password manager that offers secure and convenient password management. The purpose of this report is to review Bitwarden’s website and analyze its usability, features, and overall user experience.

Findings:
The Bitwarden website is well-designed and visually appealing. The website’s homepage is informative, with easy-to-understand descriptions of the service and its features. The website is easy to navigate, and the links to pricings, features, and support are readily accessible.

Bitwarden offers a range of features, including password generation, two-factor authentication, and secure sharing. One notable feature is the “Vault Health Reports,” which provides a comprehensive analysis of your passwords’ security status. The website also offers helpful resources, such as user guides and frequently asked questions (FAQs).

Overall, Bitwarden’s website provides a user-friendly experience and offers a range of features that cater to its target audience.

Recommendations:
Although the Bitwarden website is well-designed and user-friendly, there are a few areas for improvement.

The website’s pricing page can be overwhelming, with several different pricing plans and feature comparisons. Simplifying this page and making it more accessible could help users make informed decisions.

-ing form and infinitive

Grammar explanation

A verb can be followed by another verb. The second one usually needs to change into the -ing form or the to + infinitive form. Which form you need depends on what the first verb is.

Verbs followed by the -ing form

When enjoy, admit and mind are followed by another verb, it must be in the -ing form.

I enjoy travelling.
He admitted stealing the necklace.
I don’t mind waiting if you’re busy.

Other verbs in this group include avoid, can’t help, consider, dislike, feel like, finish, give up, miss, practise and suggest.

Like and love can be followed by the -ing form and the to + infinitive form. They are both correct.

Verbs followed by to + infinitive form

When want, learn and offer are followed by another verb, it must be in the to + infinitive form.

I want to speak to the manager.
She’s learning to play the piano.
He offered to help us wash up.

Other verbs in this group include afford, agree, ask, choose, decide, expect, hope, plan, prepare, promise, refuse and would like.

Do this exercise to test your grammar again.

Linking words and phrases

All sentences in a paragraph need to relate to the main idea in the topic sentence. The reader should be able to see how each sentence flows from the previous one and how each is connected to the topic sentence. Linking words and phrases weave sentences together to create a cohesive paragraph.

Sequence

Addition

Cause

Effect

Emphasis

Comparison

Contrast

Example

Relative pronouns and relative clauses

We use relative pronouns to introduce relative clauses. Relative clauses tell us more about people and things:

Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
This is the house which Jack built.
Marie Curie is the woman that discovered radium.

The relative pronouns are:

Preposition in relative causes

The preposition comes before the relativ pronoun. After the preposition we use whom instead of who.

We can use of which/of whom after all,both,each,many, most, rather, part, several, some, a number or a superlative

Entertainer, many of whom become household names, were highly paid

We can use a preposition from with where or when

The radio station in Cornwall, from where the first message was send

Conditionals

1. Zero Conditional

If you drop an egg, it breaks.

Form: If + present simple, present simple

Use: General truth

2. First Conditional

If you don’t leave at once, I’ll call the police.

Form: If + present simple, will + infinitive

Use: Likely / possible future situation

3. Second Conditional

If I were / was taller, I would join the basketball team.

Form: If + past simple, would + infinitive

Use: unreal / imaginary situation

4. Third Conditional

If Simon had studied more, he would have had better marks.

Form: If + past perfect, would have + participle

Use: imaginary situation in the past

Please note: If + will is ill // If + would is no good!